Hello, 👋
This is my first video blog post in which I try to explain AutoFixture.
Here’s the test case referenced in the video and the code repository for the Retroactiune project.
I used the following packages in my project.
<ItemGroup>
<PackageReference Include="AutoFixture" Version="4.17.0" />
<PackageReference Include="AutoFixture.Xunit2" Version="4.17.0" />
</ItemGroup>
Thanks for watching! 🙂
Hi 👋
In this article I will show you how to test your Python projects with Tox.
Tox is a tool for automating testing in Python, their vision is to standardize the testing process. It can be used to easily test your project using multiple Python interpreters and run various commands.
To get started all you need to add to your project is a tox.ini file. To simplify running the tests we will make use of the following Dockerfile, which contains Python interpreters for 3.6 and 3.7
FROM ubuntu:20.04
RUN apt update && apt install -y software-properties-common \
&& add-apt-repository ppa:deadsnakes/ppa \
&& apt install -y python3.6 && apt install -y python3.7 \
&& apt install -y python3-pip && pip3 install tox
VOLUME /code
WORKDIR /code
ENTRYPOINT tox
A tox.ini file which tests using python 3.6 and python 3.7 looks like this:
# content of: tox.ini , put in same dir as setup.py
[tox]
skip_missing_interpreters = True
envlist = py36,py37
[testenv]
# install pytest in the virtualenv where commands will be executed
deps =
pytest==6.2.1
pytest-cov==2.11.1
responses==0.13.3
commands =
# NOTE: you can run any command line tool here – not just tests
pytest
[testenv:bamboo]
commands =
pytest —junitxml=results.xml \
—cov=your-module—cov-config=tox.ini —cov-report=xml
coverage2clover -i coverage.xml -o clover.xml
deps =
{[testenv]deps}
coverage2clover
We have two environments: testenv and testenv:bamboo, the later one being used for coverage reporting in Bamboo using clover. To run Tox with a specific environment you’d type tox -e bamboo.
To run the test via the Dockerfile, first you’d build the docker container using: docker build . -f Dockerfile -t tox
Then, you’d run the container with docker run -v “$(pwd)”:”/code” tox -e bamboo to test with the Bamboo environment or just docker run -v “$(pwd)”:”/code” tox for the default env.
Here’s an example that you can use to follow along. We have the following files:
@denis ➜ tox_article ls
__pycache__ tests.py tox.ini
# @denis ➜ tox_article cat tests.py
import unittest
class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):
def test_upper(self):
self.assertEqual('foo'.upper(), 'FOO')
def test_isupper(self):
self.assertTrue('FOO'.isupper())
self.assertFalse('Foo'.isupper())
def test_split(self):
s = 'hello world'
self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', 'world'])
# check that s.split fails when the separator is not a string
with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
s.split(2)
if __name__ == '__main__':
unittest.main()%
# @denis ➜ tox_article cat tox.ini
[tox]
skip_missing_interpreters = True
envlist = py36,py37
skipsdist = True
[testenv]
commands =
python -m unittest%
Running Tox in our docker image will yield the following output:
@denis ➜ tox_article docker run -v "$(pwd)":"/code" tox
py36 create: /code/.tox/py36
py36 run-test-pre: PYTHONHASHSEED='520882151'
py36 run-test: commands[0] | python -m unittest
...
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 3 tests in 0.000s
OK
py37 create: /code/.tox/py37
py37 run-test-pre: PYTHONHASHSEED='520882151'
py37 run-test: commands[0] | python -m unittest
...
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 3 tests in 0.000s
OK
___________________________________ summary ____________________________________
py36: commands succeeded
py37: commands succeeded
congratulations 🙂
The same tests are run twice, first with Python 3.6 and then with Python 3.7.
Thanks for reading and happy testing! 🔧
Hello everyone! 👋
Today’s article will be about tail recursion, a technique that allows you to optimize certain recursive functions.
In short, when you write a recursive function, each new call it does allocates a frame onto the stack. For example, let us take this following function:
private static long RecursiveFib(long n)
{
if (n <= 1)
{
return n;
}
return RecursiveFib(n - 1) + RecursiveFib(n - 2);
}
If we set a breakpoint at return n and call the function with RecursiveFib(10), we will get the following stack frame. There are 10 entries in the stack frame.
Each recursive call to RecursiveFib() is dependent on the previous one and the program needs to add a new stack frame to remember the old calls. The process of adding a new stack frame takes some time, and if your program requires many of them, you may encounter a Stack Overflow error.
If we benchmark RecursiveFib(40) we get an approximation 4986853 elapsed ticks.
You can rewrite the function in an iterative manner by using a loop and sometimes a stack. Loops can then be further optimized by the compiler by using a technique called Loop Unrolling.
The iterative version of RecursiveFib looks like the following.
private static long IterativeFib(long n)
{
var a = 0L;
var b = 1L;
if (n == 0)
{
return a;
}
for (var i = 1; i < n; i++)
{
var c = a + b;
a = b;
b = c;
}
return b;
}
In the iterative version the stack of IterativeFib(10) only has 2 entries.
The benchmark for IterativeFib(100) shows 19 elapsed ticks, this is ~26246594% faster than the recursive version RecursiveFib(40), and we will not get any stack overflow errors.
Tail recursion is just like recursion but instead of using the stack, the compiler will use registers. It is accomplished by writing the function in such a way that the recursive call does not depends on the previous call. You will usually need to add additional parameters to the function’s signature to hold your data.
private static long TailRecursiveFib(long n, long a , long b )
{
return n switch
{
0 => a,
1 => b,
_ => TailRecursiveFib(n - 1, b, a + b)
};
}
The benchmark for TailRecursiveFib(100, 0 ,1) shows 21 elapsed ticks, which is very close to the iterative version.
Tail recursion is a technique of rewriting a recursive function in such a way that the new recursive call will replace the current stack frame, it will not add a new one.
Thanks for reading and I hope you have learned something! 🍻
using System;
using System.Diagnostics;
namespace TailRecursion
{
static class Program
{
private static long TailRecursiveFib(long n, long a , long b )
{
return n switch
{
0 => a,
1 => b,
_ => TailRecursiveFib(n - 1, b, a + b)
};
}
private static long RecursiveFib(long n)
{
if (n <= 1)
{
return n;
}
return RecursiveFib(n - 1) + RecursiveFib(n - 2);
}
private static long IterativeFib(long n)
{
var a = 0L;
var b = 1L;
if (n == 0)
{
return a;
}
for (var i = 1; i < n; i++)
{
var c = a + b;
a = b;
b = c;
}
return b;
}
private static void Main(string[] args)
{
var st = new Stopwatch();
var r = new Random();
for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++)
{
RecursiveFib(i);
IterativeFib(i * 10 );
TailRecursiveFib(i * 10, 0, 1);
}
long result = 0;
st.Restart();
// result = RecursiveFib(10);
result = TailRecursiveFib(100, 0, 1);
// result = IterativeFib(100);
st.Stop();
Console.WriteLine("Elapsed ticks: {0}", st.ElapsedTicks);
Console.WriteLine(result);
}
}
}
Hello 🙋♂️,
Running a ⏩FastAPI ⏩ application in production is very easy and fast, but along the way some Uvicorn logs are lost.
In this article I will discuss how to write a custom UvicornWorker and to centralize your logging configuration into a single file.
To keep things as simple as possible I’ve put all my code in a single Python file.
import uvicorn as uvicorn
from fastapi import FastAPI, APIRouter
router = APIRouter(prefix="")
def create_app():
fast_app = FastAPI()
fast_app.include_router(router)
return fast_app
@router.get("/")
def read_root():
return {"Hello": "World"}
if __name__ == '__main__':
app = create_app()
uvicorn.run(app=app)
Running the code will return a {"Hello": "World"} json when you visit the root endpoint / at http://127.0.0.1:8000. 😁
When you check the console window, the following log lines are printed:
INFO: Started server process [10276] INFO: Waiting for application startup. INFO: Application startup complete. INFO: Uvicorn running on http://127.0.0.1:8000 (Press CTRL+C to quit) INFO: 127.0.0.1:53491 - "GET / HTTP/1.1" 200 OK
Notice the Uvicorn log GET / HTTP/1.1″ 200 OK.
According to Uvicorn’s deployment docs we should run Uvicorn in a production settings with the following command: gunicorn -k uvicorn.workers.UvicornWorker main:create_app.
(venv2) ➜ FastAPILogging gunicorn -k uvicorn.workers.UvicornWorker main:create_app [2021-05-17 22:10:44 +0300] [6250] [INFO] Starting gunicorn 20.1.0 [2021-05-17 22:10:44 +0300] [6250] [INFO] Listening at: http://127.0.0.1:8000 (6250) [2021-05-17 22:10:44 +0300] [6250] [INFO] Using worker: uvicorn.workers.UvicornWorker [2021-05-17 22:10:44 +0300] [6252] [INFO] Booting worker with pid: 6252 [2021-05-17 22:10:45 +0300] [6252] [WARNING] ASGI app factory detected. Using it, but please consider setting the --factory flag explicitly. [2021-05-17 22:10:45 +0300] [6252] [INFO] Started server process [6252] [2021-05-17 22:10:45 +0300] [6252] [INFO] Waiting for application startup. [2021-05-17 22:10:45 +0300] [6252] [INFO] Application startup complete.
Now, if we visit the root endpoint, the console won’t print “GET / HTTP/1.1” 200 OK anymore/ 🤦♂️.
To fix it we need a custom UvicornWorker ⚙ and a logging configuration file 🗃.
Create a new file and name it logging.yaml, then paste the following contents in it:
version: 1
disable_existing_loggers: false
formatters:
standard:
format: "%(asctime)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s"
handlers:
console:
class: logging.StreamHandler
formatter: standard
stream: ext://sys.stdout
loggers:
uvicorn:
error:
propagate: true
root:
level: INFO
handlers: [console]
propagate: no
This file will configure our root logger and our Uvicorn logger. To read more on the topic please see Python logging configuration.
Next, we will create a custom UvicornWorker class that will set log_config to the path of our logging.yaml file, to pass the logging configuration that we’ve just made to Uvicorn. 🦄
I added the following code in main.py:
class MyUvicornWorker(UvicornWorker):
CONFIG_KWARGS = {
"log_config": "/mnt/c/Users/denis/PycharmProjects/FastAPILogging/logging.yaml",
}
▶ If we run the application with:
gunicorn -k main.MyUvicornWorker main:create_app
We should see the Uvicorn access logs printed in the console 🦄
(venv2) ➜ FastAPILogging gunicorn -k main.MyUvicornWorker main:create_app [2021-05-17 22:31:28 +0300] [6278] [INFO] Starting gunicorn 20.1.0 [2021-05-17 22:31:28 +0300] [6278] [INFO] Listening at: http://127.0.0.1:8000 (6278) [2021-05-17 22:31:28 +0300] [6278] [INFO] Using worker: main.MyUvicornWorker [2021-05-17 22:31:28 +0300] [6280] [INFO] Booting worker with pid: 6280 2021-05-17 22:31:28,185 - WARNING - ASGI app factory detected. Using it, but please consider setting the --factory flag explicitly. 2021-05-17 22:31:28,185 - INFO - Started server process [6280] 2021-05-17 22:31:28,185 - INFO - Waiting for application startup. 2021-05-17 22:31:28,185 - INFO - Application startup complete. 2021-05-17 22:31:30,129 - INFO - 127.0.0.1:54004 - "GET / HTTP/1.1" 200
Thanks for reading! 📚
click==7.1.2 fastapi==0.65.1 gunicorn==20.1.0 h11==0.12.0 httptools==0.2.0 pydantic==1.8.2 PyYAML==5.4.1 starlette==0.14.2 typing-extensions==3.10.0.0 uvicorn==0.13.4 uvloop==0.15.2
Nucu Labs 